Barangay Elections 2023: Grassroots Democracy in Action in the Philippines

The Philippines, a country with a history of resilience and multifaceted culture, prioritizes democratic practices at all levels of its governance. Of all the electoral events that take place, in this republic, the barangay elections are undoubtedly the most grassroots and closely intertwined with the daily lives of Filipinos. 

The upcoming barangay elections, set to take place on October 30, 2023, hold great significance for a number of reasons. This will be the 10th barangay election held since the enactment of the Local Government Code of the Philippines (LGC) on October 10, 1991. As of January 2022, there were 42,046 barangays in the Philippines, and according to the Philippine Statistics Office (PSA), the country's population in the same period stood at 115,559,009.

The LGC is a landmark piece of legislation that has transformed the structure and functions of local government in the Philippines. It has devolved more power and resources to local governments than previous laws, making them more responsive to the needs of their constituents. 

The LGC, also known as Republic Act No. 7160, requires the holding of barangay elections in the Philippines. The rules regarding the said elections can be found in "Title II", which covers "Elective Officials". Specifically, "Chapter 1 of Title II" details the rules and regulations for the barangay elections.

The Local Government Code (LGC) was authored by Senator Aquilino Q. "Nene" Pimentel Jr., who is recognized as the "Father of Local Autonomy" in the Philippines. A team of experts, including lawyers, economists, and political scientists, assisted him in this historic task.

Pimentel, a delegate to the 1971 Constitutional Convention, was a staunch supporter of local government reform. He believed that local governments should be given more power to make decisions and carry out programs that meet the needs of their constituents. He also believed that local governments should be accountable to their constituents.

"The Code has empowered the local government units all over the country by squarely placing upon them, as frontline institutions, the responsibility for developing their respective territories," Pimentel said.

The law brought about a significant change in the decision-making process by removing decades of highly centralized decision-making that hindered the modernization of local communities and shifted the responsibility to local officials. 

As a result of the Code, the government has decentralized and devolved powers and functions to LGUs, particularly in the areas of health, agriculture, and social welfare.

Significance and Importance

1. At the heart of Philippine politics lies grassroots democracy, with the barangay serving as the smallest administrative unit comparable to a village or ward. As the cornerstone of the nation's governance, it provides a direct connection between the government and the community. This level of administration is intimately involved with the citizens, affecting their everyday lives, community endeavors, peacekeeping, and local advancement efforts.

2. The barangay system plays a crucial role in nurturing future leaders. It has been noted that not a few prominent political figures began their careers in barangay governance. This underscores the importance of barangay elections, as they not only elect local leaders but also provide a stage for emerging national leaders. Leadership development therefore within the barangay system is a crucial feature of the political setting in the country.

3. Barangay officials are more than just leaders, they can be a neighbor, friends, and professionals in the community. They have a deep understanding of the local concerns, cultural nuances, and specific needs of their constituents. Through the election process, the community's voice is represented with authenticity.

What is at Stake?

1. Local Development. The direction in which a barangay moves—whether it progresses or remains stagnant—largely depends on its leadership. Properly executed projects, peace and order, dispute resolution, and other community matters rely on competent barangay officials.

2. Financial Resources. Barangays receive funds from the national government, and the correct and transparent allocation of these funds is crucial. Mismanagement or corruption at this level directly impacts the efficacy of community projects and welfare arrangements.

3. Social Cohesion. A barangay is not just an administrative unit; it's a closely-knit community. The elections, and how they are conducted, can either foster unity or sow discord among its residents.

The Contestation

Given the stakes and the proximity to the electorate, barangay elections are often hotly contested. Campaigns, though on a smaller scale compared to national elections, are nevertheless intensely personal. 

1. Personal Rivalries. Due to the close-knit nature of communities, personal ties and rivalries often come to the fore during these elections. Such dynamics can make the elections deeply emotional and charged.

2. Participation of Larger Political Players. While barangay elections are supposed to be non-partisan, it's an open secret that larger political entities and figures have a stake, using them as a way to consolidate power at the grassroots level.

3. Vote-Buying and Violence. Like other elections in the Philippines, barangay elections are not immune to issues like vote-buying, intimidation, and even violence. The passion with which these positions are contested sometimes spills over into nasty or outrightly dirty actions.

4. The Lure of Salaries and Benefits. Barangay officials receive modest salaries but for people at the grassroots level, these are still a substantial amount. Based on 2012 figures, the Punong Barangay earns PHP 34,000, while the Sangguniang Barangay Member, Barangay Secretary, Barangay Treasurer, and Barangay Kagawad each receive PHP 15,000.

Aside from these salaries, barangay officials also receive honoraria, allowances, compensation and leave privileges, Christmas bonuses, civil service eligibility, and preference in appointment. They are also exempt from tuition and matriculation fees.

These salaries and benefits are not to be ignored as they can be a great incentive for aspiring barangay officials.

 Grassroots Democracy in Action

To conclude, it is important to appreciate that the 2023 barangay elections in the Philippines are not just a local administrative process but a fundamental aspect of grassroots democracy, future leadership, and community representation in the Philippines. 

There's a lot on the line. Local development, financial transparency, and social cohesion are the main stakes. In many barangays, the situation remains uncertain and could go either way. The fervor and intensity with which these positions are being contested underscore the significance of these elections in the lively and often raucous Philippine democratic landscape. 

As the country approaches this important date, we can only hope that the fine and true spirit of Philippine democracy prevails, paving the way for a prosperous and united future for these myriad Philippine communities. 

Heneral Anacleto Enriquez: Hero of the Philippine Revolution

My granduncle, Heneral Anacleto SF Enriquez, was born on September 25, 1876, in San Jose, Bulakan, Bulacan, in the spacious "bahay na bato" of his parents, Don Vicente Enriquez y de Jesus and Doña Petrona Sepulveda Fernando y Gatmaytan.

Don Vicente and Doña Petrona had nine children: six boys and three girls. In order of age, they were: Alfonso, Anacleto, Severina, Victoria, Paula, Vicente Jr., Jose, Laureano, and Bonifacio, who was my grandfather.

Upon the outbreak of the Philippine Revolution on August 26, 1896, the first four sons - Alfonso, Anacleto, Vicente Jr., and Jose - joined the Katipunan. Laureano and Bonifacio were too young to fight. The Enriquez siblings became high-ranking officials of the Katipunan and were all actively involved in many a fierce battle.

Anacleto evinced superb organizational skills and ardent enthusiasm as he helped expand the Katipunan in Bulakan, Bulacan. The name of the first Katipunan branch in Bulakan was "Balangay Uliran." This was soon changed to "Brigada Pilar" because the membership quickly grew to over three thousand. Before long, it fell under the jurisdiction of “Balangay at Sanguniang Apuy ng Malolos, Bulakan”  

Anacleto’s bravery and fighting skills quickly became famous in the rank and file of the KKK (Kataastaasang Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan). His sharpshooting ability added to his fame, which is why he was nicknamed "Matanglawin" (Hawk Eye). Because of this reputation, on October 20, 1896, at the age of 20, he was appointed General and second-in-command of the Katipunan in Bulacan province by General Isidoro Torres.

Lieutenant Jose Enriquez, the third youngest of the siblings, described how the people admired Anacleto Enriquez's bravery and leadership ability. This task put Anacleto in grave danger, as the Katipunan was then a highly secretive organization. In those days membership in any subversive organization, but especially being a ranking member, was punishable by death.

Anacleto Enriquez's celebrity was further enhanced by his good looks, robust physique, noble bearing, magnetic persona, Ateneo education, and upper-class lineage.

And as if these attributes were not enough, Anacleto was adept at political propaganda. For example, he started a successful "whisper campaign" about the abuses and atrocities of the Spaniards, which quickly spread throughout Bulakan. 

Along with Gregorio del Pilar, he also distributed stirring revolutionary leaflets in the Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion Church of Bulakan. For these daring heroic deeds, Anacleto Enriquez and Gregorio del Pilar earned the adulation of the people of Bulakan, Bulacan, and the disfavor of the authorities.

Gen. Anacleto Enriquez and Gen. Gregorio del Pilar were childhood friends and close companions. In fact, the spot where del Pilar was born in San Jose, Bulakan, Bulacan, was in a property owned by Don Vicente and Doñ Petrona.

Their births were only ten months apart: Anacleto was born on September 26, 1876, and Gregorio on November 14, 1875. Anacleto's nickname was "Etoy" and Gregorio's was "Goyo".

Their friendship continued at the Ateneo Municipal de Manila in Intramuros, where they were classmates. Part of their group was Etoy's younger brother, Vicente Enriquez Jr., nicknamed "Enteng".

It was perhaps in the Ateneo that Vicente Enriquez Jr. earned the trust of Gen. Gregorio del Pilar. For his part, Vicente Enriquez Jr. would rise to the rank of Colonel in the Katipunan and be chosen by Gen. Gregorio del Pilar as his personal assistant or "aide-de-camp", or “ayudante”, which was a huge responsibility. Col. Vicente Enriquez Jr. was one of the few survivors of the battle at Pasong Tirad on December 2, 1899.

For his heroism at Pasong Tirad, historians say that Gen. Gregorio del Pilar drew inspiration from Gen. Anacleto Enriquez, who had earlier become a revolutionary martyr. Gen. Enriquez had sacrificed his life, along with over eight hundred Katipuneros, in the bloody battle within the church of San Rafael, Bulakan, on November 30, 1896 (See my blog post "The Enriquez Family of Bulacan, Bulacan").

According to Teodoro M. Kalaw, who wrote a beautiful biography of Gen Gregorio del Pilar, upon hearing of the death of Gen. Anacleto Enriquez, Gen. Goyo solemnly said:

"I wonder what strengthened Etoy when he fell in battle? So I can know how to offer my life for the country." 

My grandfather Bonifacio SF Enriquez, the youngest in the family, had a spine-tingling story, told countless times in my childhood.

On November 30, 1896, Don Vicente and Doña Petrona were having lunch at home with their two sons who did not go to war, and their three daughters.

At approximately 12:30 PM, which was also the time of Anacleto Enriquez's death in San Rafael, Bulacan, they saw the dark shadow of what seemed to be a large bird tracing itself on the ornate dining room ceiling as if to say goodbye.

The ominous shadow was visible for several seconds, then it flew out of the dining room toward their living room. When they followed it, it eerily went out through the living room’s expansive window.

After this hauntingly poignant vision, the Enriquez family knelt and prayed for their beloved Etoy.

Moral Compass in Conflict: Evaluating the Israel-Hamas War Through the Lens of Just War Theory (Bellum Justum)

 Introduction:

The unrelenting battle between Israel and Hamas is part of the Levant's Israeli-Palestinian conflict. It is one of the world's longest-running conflicts, dating back to the mid-twentieth century. Several efforts have been made to resolve the issue as part of the Israeli-Palestinian peace process, as well as other measures to settle the greater Arab-Israeli conflict.

Wikipedia cites 16 wars or warlike confrontations in this conflict since the formation of the state of Israel in 1948—nearly one per five years. 

This essay will evaluate the ethical soundness of Israel's armed response to Hamas, following the October 7, 2023 attack on its southern border by thousands of Hamas terrorists, using Just War Theory. 

This framework offers a moral lens to evaluate the justifiability of military action, using just cause, legitimate authority, limited objectives and proportionality, right intention, reasonable chance of success, and last resort.

Just War Theory

Just War Theory is a doctrine of military ethics dealt with by moral philosophers, theologians, and military leaders. This concept specifies the conditions that must be fulfilled for a war to be ethically justified.  Though it has roots in religious thought, Just War Theory is now a part of secular philosophical and international legal debates on the ethics of warfare.

Just War Theory didn't originate from a single philosopher. It is a doctrine that has progressed over centuries, influenced by different religious, philosophical, and cultural viewpoints. Nevertheless, certain key figures have played a crucial role in shaping and developing it.

Cicero:

Marcus Tullius Cicero, a Roman statesman, philosopher, and orator, believed that war should not be the first course of action in any conflict. He advocated for a peaceful resolution of disputes through diplomatic means and negotiation. Only when all efforts have been exhausted, and the safety of the innocent is at stake, should war be considered as an option. 

Additionally, Cicero stressed the importance of ethical conduct during wars and the need for public declaration of war. These ideas were revolutionary in pre-Christian ethics and served as a foundation for the development of the Just War doctrine. Cicero's theories bridged classical philosophy with future Christian and international legal perspectives on justified conflict.

Saint Augustine:

St. Augustine of Hippo was an early Christian theologian and philosopher who is well-known for developing the first theory on a just war in the context of Christian philosophy. His ideas on safeguarding peace, defending against threats, and protecting the innocent and the Christian faith as legitimate reasons for war have made a significant contribution to the Just War theory.

St. Augustine strongly believed that love and peace should always be the purpose behind engaging in war, even if it involves violent actions. He recognized the complexities of human nature and the need for war in certain circumstances to prevent greater evil or promote peace. Therefore, he argued that war could be just, but only if it met specific conditions, such as waging war under legitimate authority, pursuing a just cause like self-defense, and being guided by the right intention, such as establishing a just and peaceful resolution.

St. Augustine's works have established a moral framework that has influenced both theological discourse and political policy for centuries to come, providing a basis for justifying war under certain circumstances.

Saint Thomas Aquinas:

Saint Thomas Aquinas, a prominent Christian philosopher and theologian in the Scholastic tradition, built on Augustine's ideas in his work "Summa Theologica." He further developed the concept of a just war and outlined more detailed criteria for it. These included just cause, legitimate authority, and right intention, which became fundamental in later Just War theory.

By combining Christian theology and Aristotelian philosophy, St. Thomas Aquinas significantly improved the Just War theory. He established standards that attempted to control the justification and conduct of war. In his seminal book, "Summa Theologica," Aquinas defined three primary premises for a just war. 

Firstly, it must be undertaken by a legitimate authority. Secondly, it must have a just reason, such as self-defense or restoring peace. Thirdly, it must be fought with proper intention, not for aggressive or cruel objectives. These principles created an ethical framework that not only governed medieval Christian thinking but also had a significant impact on the development of international humanitarian rules governing warfare.

Hugo Grotius:

Hugo Grotius is widely known as the "Father of International Law" because of his significant contributions to the development of natural law theory. He believed that states possess natural rights, which include the right to self-defense. Grotius argued that nations are bound by natural law in their dealings with other countries, and he established principles for just causes for war, such as self-defense and reparation for harm. He also introduced rules for lawful conduct within war, which included the protection of non-combatants.

Grotius formulated rules for conducting warfare that influenced later international conventions. He greatly influenced Just War theory by transitioning it from a theological perspective to a basis in natural law and international relations. His work de-emphasized the role of divine intervention in human affairs, grounding the justification and conduct of war in legal and moral consensus that transcended religious and national boundaries.

The October 7, 2023 Attack: Context and Implications

On October 7, 2023, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict witnessed a significant escalation. Thousands of Hamas militants launched a massive attack on Israel's southern border, which surpassed in scale and intensity all previous attacks. The level of planning and barbarity indicated that Hamas had adopted a new strategic approach.

This was not a spontaneous uprising but an orchestrated operation. The attack caused significant human casualties and extensive material damage, which only intensified the existing tensions in a region already burdened by decades of historical disputes and political strife.

The Israeli forces were surprised by the ferocity and scale of the attack and responded quickly and decisively. Their primary objective was twofold: to neutralize the immediate threat posed by the Hamas militants and to re-establish a sense of deterrence to discourage similar attacks in the future. However, the rapidity and extent of Israel's response sparked international debate, with many questioning the ethical boundaries of warfare, especially in a conflict as layered and sensitive as the Israeli-Palestinian one.

To fully understand the ramifications of both the Hamas assault and the Israeli retaliation, one must view the events through the lens of the Just War framework. This philosophical doctrine offers a structured means to assess the morality and justification of war, considering principles like rightful intention, proportionality, and the legitimacy of the involved parties. Utilizing this framework will provide a more nuanced understanding of the events of October 7 and the subsequent military and political reactions.

Applying the Principles of Just War Theory to the Current Israel-Hamas War

1. Just Cause:

The principle of "Just Cause" is a fundamental concept in Just War Theory. It states that war can only be justified if it is pursued for reasons of great moral significance. This usually includes situations like defending against an outright aggression, protecting innocent civilians from harm, or rectifying a serious and sustained injustice. The core of this principle is to ensure that wars are not fought for trivial or self-centered reasons but are grounded in ethical considerations that are more important than any individual interests.

Application to the Israel-Hamas Conflict:

The conflict between Israel and Hamas has deep historical roots and involves a variety of issues, including territorial disputes, security concerns, and long-standing grievances. Israel argues that it has a just cause to engage in the conflict because it needs to protect its citizens from rocket attacks, terrorist incursions, and other security threats coming from Gaza. 

Israel’s primary argument is that it has the right and duty to safeguard its citizens. On the other hand, Hamas sees its actions as a form of resistance against what they call Israeli occupation. They assert that their struggle is aimed at addressing perceived systemic injustices and defending Palestinian rights and sovereignty. Both sides claim moral justification based on the Just Cause principle, highlighting the complex and multifaceted nature of the conflict.

2. Legitimate Authority:

The principle of "Legitimate Authority" in Just War Theory emphasizes the importance of ensuring that wars and military engagements are initiated and overseen by entities with the appropriate jurisdiction and mandate. This criterion aims to prevent factions or individuals from waging war arbitrarily or without the consensus of the community they represent. The idea is to ensure that military actions are carried out with a level of responsibility and accountability, stemming from a recognized and valid governing structure. Essentially, this means that wars should only be waged by those who have the legal right and moral responsibility to do so and that they should be accountable for their actions and decisions.

Application to the Israel-Hamas Conflict:

The principle of Legitimate Authority presents different perspectives in the context of the Israel-Hamas conflict. Israel is a recognized sovereign nation with an established government that makes decisions on military actions based on its institutional processes. Therefore, Israel's use of military force is grounded in its status as a sovereign state with a functioning governance structure.

On the other hand, Hamas' claim to legitimate authority is more complicated. While Hamas controls the Gaza Strip and won the 2006 Palestinian legislative elections, not everyone recognizes it as a legitimate governing authority. Several countries and international entities consider Hamas a terrorist organization, which affects its perception and standing on the international stage. Therefore, although Hamas views itself as a representative body defending Palestinian interests in Gaza, its authority to wage war remains a point of contention, particularly in the eyes of the international community.

3. Limited Objectives and Proportionality:

The limited objectives principle holds that the goals of war should be specific and well-defined, with the ultimate aim of establishing a fair and lasting peace. Proportionality dictates that the amount of force used should be appropriate to the objective, ensuring that excessive or indiscriminate force is avoided, especially when it could harm non-combatants.

Application to the Israel-Hamas Conflict:

The Israel-Hamas conflict presents a complicated situation that requires careful consideration of various principles. Israel aims to protect its people and territory and often responds to threats like rocket launches and tunnel infrastructures by undertaking military operations. However, these actions, such as air strikes and ground incursions, have faced scrutiny and debate regarding their proportionality, especially when they cause civilian casualties in densely populated areas of Gaza. The challenge lies in finding a balance between achieving military objectives and minimizing harm to civilians.

On the other hand, Hamas launches rockets towards Israeli towns and cities, with clear objectives in mind. However, these attacks indiscriminately target population centers and have raised questions concerning the proportionality of the means employed and the broader objectives pursued, particularly considering the potential for civilian harm in Israel. The actions and strategies of both sides highlight the challenges of applying and agreeing upon the principles of limited objectives and proportionality in modern, asymmetric conflicts.

4. Right Intention:

The principle of "Right Intention" in Just War Theory emphasizes that the reasons for going to war must be morally justifiable, and not driven by ulterior or malicious motives. The ultimate goal must always be to re-establish a state of just peace, which ensures that military actions are not used as tools for settling scores, expanding territories, or any other purposes that deviate from achieving a just and lasting peace. 

Application to the Israel-Hamas Conflict:

The ongoing conflict between Israel and Hamas is a long-standing issue that has been characterized by intense violence and deep-seated animosity. The situation is complicated by the fact that both sides claim to have the best intentions, which can make it difficult to assess the sincerity of their actions. 

However, when we look at the methods that both parties have used to achieve their goals, as well as the outcomes that have resulted from their actions, it becomes clear that there are serious questions to be asked about the true motivations of each side. This is where impartial analysis becomes crucial, as it provides an objective perspective on the situation and helps to ensure that conflict resolution efforts are transparent and effective. 

Ultimately, it is only through the careful examination of all parties' intentions, as well as the outcomes of their actions, that we can hope to achieve a lasting and equitable resolution to this complex and deeply entrenched conflict.

5. Reasonable Chance of Success 

According to the principles of Just War Theory, a military engagement must have a reasonable chance of success, meaning that it should have a realistic prospect of achieving its objectives. This principle ensures that lives are not wasted in hopeless endeavors and wars aren't started without clear strategic foresight or merely for symbolism. The idea is based on the belief that military action should be purposeful and strategic, with the potential for actual improvement in the situation compared to inaction.

Application to the Israel-Hamas Conflict:

The Israel-Hamas conflict is complex, with different dynamics of power and success. Israel has advanced military capabilities and usually achieves immediate tactical objectives when it commences operations by targeting specific threats or launching broader operations. Its military superiority allows it to achieve these tactical successes with precision.

On the other hand, Hamas operates from a different strategic framework. Although it is outmatched by the Israeli Defense Forces, it employs methods of asymmetric warfare such as guerrilla-style operations and rocket attacks to achieve strategic victories. The group's actions are often intended to rally support, make political statements, or influence international opinion. While it cannot achieve a conventional military triumph over Israel, its definition of "success" is not necessarily territorial gain or military dominance but could be in terms of political or symbolic victories.

In essence, both entities approach the conflict with distinct metrics of success and leverage their strengths accordingly. This highlights the various interpretations of the "Reasonable Chance of Success" principle in real-world scenarios.

6. Last Resort:

The principle of "Last Resort" in the Just War Theory states that military action should only be taken when all other peaceful options for resolution have been tried and found ineffective. This means that war or military interventions should not be the first choice, but rather the final option when diplomatic and other non-violent methods fail. The objective is to ensure that conflicts are not escalated without proper justification and to emphasize the significance of peaceful resolutions.

Application to the Israel-Hamas Conflict:

The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is one of the world's longest-running and most complex conflicts. It is a multifaceted issue that has been ongoing for decades, and it is rooted in a complex web of historical, political, and territorial disputes. The conflict is primarily between Israel and Hamas, the Islamist political organization that governs the Gaza Strip. 

Israel's military actions are often portrayed as necessary responses to immediate threats. Its government and military argue that they are acting in self-defense against Hamas, which has launched thousands of rockets into Israel and carried out suicide bombings and other attacks. Israel also argues that it has a right to defend its citizens and to maintain its security in a volatile region.

On the other hand, Hamas views its actions as part of a broader struggle for Palestinian rights. Hamas argues that it is fighting against Israeli occupation and oppression and that its attacks are a response to Israel's military actions and blockade of Gaza. Hamas also argues that it is defending the rights of Palestinians, who have been displaced and oppressed by Israel for decades.

The conflict has led to the loss of thousands of lives, both Israeli and Palestinian, and has caused immense suffering on both sides. Despite numerous attempts at peace negotiations over the years, a lasting solution to the conflict has yet to be found.

Conclusion:

The conflict between Israel and Palestine is a complex and enduring dispute that has deep historical, cultural, and political roots. It has far-reaching implications that go beyond the immediate region, affecting international relations, policies, and public opinion.

Using Just War theory as a tool to evaluate the ethical underpinnings of the actions taken in this conflict provides a structured approach. By examining the October 7, 2023 attack and Israel's response, this theory sheds light on the motivations, objectives, and outcomes of the engagement. However, it is challenging to make definitive judgments as the lines between justice, morality, and strategy are often blurred.

Instead of focusing on theoretical considerations, the priority for all parties involved and the international community should be to establish a sustainable path toward peace. Military actions may provide temporary solutions or deterrence, but they are not long-term remedies. A genuine and lasting resolution can only arise from mutual respect, sustained dialogue, and a commitment to understanding and addressing the core grievances of both sides.

The ongoing cycles of violence are a clear indication of the costs of inaction and the need to move beyond entrenched positions. For the sake of future generations, it is crucial to redouble efforts in fostering an environment of trust, collaboration, and mutual coexistence. Only then can the wounds of the past begin to heal, and a peaceful future be envisioned for Israelis and Palestinians.

References

Anscombe, Elizabeth. “War and Murder,” from Richard A. Wasserstrom (ed.), War and Morality, Wadsworth (1970).

Black, I. (2017). Enemies and Neighbors: Arabs and Jews in Palestine and Israel, 1917-2017. Atlantic Monthly Press.

Bregman, A. (2002). Israel's Wars: A History Since 1947. Routledge.

Franceschet, A. “Brian Orend, "War and International Justice: A Kantian Perspective Philosophy in Review, Vol. 21, no. 3, June 2001, pp. 164-7.

Gelvin, J. L. (2014). The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War. Cambridge University Press.

Gunning, J. (2008). Hamas in politics: Democracy, Religion, Violence. Columbia University Press.

Harel, A., & Issacharoff, A. (2004). 34 Days: Israel, Hezbollah, and the War in Lebanon. Palgrave Macmillan.

Hroub, K. (2006). Hamas: A Beginner's Guide. Pluto Press.

Mishal, S., & Sela, A. (2006). The Palestinian Hamas: Vision, Violence, and Coexistence. N.Y. Columbia University Press.

Ovendale, R. (2004). The Origins of the Arab-Israeli Wars (4th ed.). Pearson.

Paskins, B., & Dockrill, M. (1979). The Ethics of War. Duckworth: London.

Richard Norman (1995). Ethics, Killing and War New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press. 

Roy, S. (2007). Failing Peace: Gaza and the Palestinian-Israeli Conflict. Pluto Press.

Tessler, M. (2009). A History of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict (2nd ed.). Indiana University Press.

Thomas Nagel “War and Massacre” Philosophy and Public Affairs 1 (2): 123-144. 1972.

Walzer, M. (1992) Just and Unjust Wars: a Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations. (New York): Basic Books

Walzer, M. (2015). Just and Unjust Wars (5th ed.). Basic Books.

Isang Maikling Primer Hinggil sa Digmaang Israel-Hamas

Introduksyon

Ang digmaan ng Israel at Hamas ay isang kumplikado at malalim na labanan sa pagitan ng estadong Hudyo na Israel at Hamas, isang organisasyong pulitikal at militar na Palestino. Ang digmaan ay nagdudulot ng malawakang pagdurusa at paghihirap, sa magkabilang panig, dahilan kung bakit dapat nating malaman ang kasaysayan at patuloy na dinamikla nito. Ang primer na ito ay naglalayong magbigay ng isang maikling paliwanag ng mga pinagmulan, pangunahing kaganapan, at nangungunang mga isyu tungkol sa digmaang ito.  

1. Kasaysayan

Ang tunggaliang Israel-Hamas ay matatagpuan sa mas malawak na konteksto ng tunggaliang Israel-Palestine na lumitaw sa simula ng ika-20 siglo. Ito ay kulminasyon sa paglikha ng estado ng Israel noong 1948. Ang mga pangunahing isyu ng tunggalian ay ang mga alitan tungkol sa teritoryo, ang kalagayan ng Jerusalem, ang kahihinatnan ng estado ng Palestine at mga karapatan ng mga refugee.

2. Ang Paglitaw ng Hamas

Sa paglipas ng panahon, iba't-ibang Palestinong paksyon ang lumitaw, na nagtataguyod ng iba’t ibang diskarte sa pakikibaka para sa Palestinong karapatan at interes. Ang Hamas, isang akronimo para sa “Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiya” (Islamic Resistance Movement), ay lumitaw sa dakong huli ng 1980s. Ang Hamas ay nagsimula bilang bahagi ng “Muslim Brotherhood”, na lumalaban at tumututol sa Israel sa parehong pampulitikal at militar na paraan.

3. Mga Pangunahing Isyu at Mitsa ng Digmaan

Ang tunggalian ay dumaraan sa mga panahon ng relatibong kapayapaan na ginagambala ng mga pagdami ng karahasan na madalas ay sanhi ng mga isyu o suliranin ng mga Palestino. Kabilang sa mga ito ang kalagayan ng Jerusalem, pag-access sa mga banal na lugar, pagtatayo ng mga Israel settlement, mga pambubuska at pambubuyo sa mga relihiyosong lugar, mga sukat at linya sa hangganan, at ang pagpapalipad ng mga rocket sa Israel ng Hamas. Itinuturing ng Israel at ng US na teroristang organisasyon ang Hamas.

4. Ang Tugon ng Israel 

Itinuturing ng Israel ang Hamas bilang isang panganib sa kaniyang seguridad dahil sa hindi nito pagkilala sa karapatan ng Israel na maging bansa, ang mga militar na operasyon nito laban sa mga sibilyang Israeli, at ang kanyang malawak na impluwensiya sa Gaza Strip. Bilang tugon, nagsagawa na ang Israel ng mga serye ng operasyong militar na naglalayong matibag ang kakayahan, lakas, at impluwensiya ng Hamas.

5. Ang Blockade ng Israel at Egypt sa Mediterranean Sea at sa Kalupaan ng Gaza 

Ang Gaza Strip, isang maliit na baybaying enclave na kontrolado ng Hamas, ay sentral na lugar ng labanan. Ang populasyon nito ay dumaranas ng matinding sosyo-ekonomikong mga paghihirap na sanhi ng blockade ng Israel at Egypt sa Mediterranean Sea at sa kalupaan ng Gaza na pumipigil sa galaw ng mga kalakal, mga tao, at mga materyales sa pagtatayo,  na humantong sa mataas na kawalan ng trabaho, kahirapan, at access sa mga pangunahing mga serbisyo.

6. Ang Papel ng mga Rockets at Tunnel

Ang paggamit ng Hamas ng mga rocket at mga tunnel na pampuslit at pag-atake sa teritoryong Israel ay maiinit na usapin. Mula sa perspektibo ng Israel, ang mga aksyon na ito ay direktang banta sa seguridad at soberanya nito, kung kaya’t nagsasagawa ito ng mga operasyong militar upang ma-neutralize ang mga kakayahang ito.

7. Mga Resultang Humanitarian

Ang digmaang Israel-Hamas ay kasalukuyang nagdudulot ng maraming kamatayan sa dalawang panig, lalo na ng mga sibilyan. Ang mataong Gaza Strip ay ulit-ulitan nang namatayan nang libo-libo at nasiraan ng infrastructure sanhi ng mga operasyong militar. Ganito rin ang nangyari sa mga humigit-kumulang 1,300 at 3,300 na Israeli na pinatay at sinugatan ng Hamas nang sila ay tumawid ng border kamakailan lang. Ang mga pagpatay at pagsugat na ito ay umani na ng pagkondenang internasyonal.   

8. Ang Mas Malawak na Dinamikong Rehiyonal ng Middle East

Ang tunggaliang Israel-Hamas ay nakapaloob sa mas malawak at masalimuot na sitwasyong geopulitikal sa Middle East. Ang iba pang mga kalahok sa geopulitikang ito, tulad ng Egipto, ang Palestinian Authority, at ilang mga internasyonal na mga tagapamagitan, ay naghahanap ng paraan para magkaroon ng tigil-putukan, magkaroon ng negosasyon, at masuportahan  ang mga pagtulong na humanitarian.

Konklusyon:

Upang maunawaan ang tunggaliang Israel-Hamas, nangangailangan ng isang malalim na pag-unawa ng kanyang kontekstong pangkasaysayan, mga pangunahin at maseselang “trigger points”, at mga ugat na isyu.

Ang tunggaliang ito ay may malalim na pinagmulan at nakaugnay sa mas malawak at mas matagal na tunggaliang Israel-Palestine. Ang paghahanap ng isang epektibo at pangmatagalang solusyon ay nangangailangan ng mga epektibong solusyon sa mga hinaing at pangangailangan ng magkabilang panig. Sabihin pa ba, hindi madaling solusyonan ang problemang ito. Kaya nga tumagal ang suliraning ito.

Sabay nito, dapat palakasin ang dialogo, de-escalation ng karahasan, at paggalang sa mga karapatang pantao ng magkabilang panig, isa nanamang mahirap na hamon. Ang pagkakamit ng matibay na kapayapaan ay nananatiling isang mahirap na layunin, na nangangailangan ng makabuluhan at matinding pagsisikap at pagkilos mula sa internasyonal na komunidad, na kailangan upang makamit ang isang komprehensibong solusyon.

UPDEPPO, Higher Education, and Regional Growth in Central Luzon

Introduction

Higher education institutions play a crucial role in shaping regions' and nations' intellectual, social, and economic landscapes. In the Philippines, the University of the Philippines (UP) has long been recognized as a premier institution committed to academic excellence and nation-building. 

With the establishment of the UP Diliman Extension Programs in Pampanga and Olongapo (UPDEPPO) at Clark Freeport and Subic Bay Freeport respectively, the region has gained a valuable asset that is contributing significantly to the advancement of higher education in the area. 

In this essay, we explore the role of the UPDEPPO in Central Luzon, highlighting its impact on education, research, community development, and regional growth.

Why UP Has to Establish a Strong Presence in Central Luzon

There are three reasons why UP has to develop a presence in Central Luzon:

    1. To make higher education more accessible to citizens of Central Luzon. With nearly 12 million inhabitants, Central Luzon is the Philippines' third most populated area. However, with just a few public institutions and colleges in the area, many Central Luzon people must go to Metro Manila or other regions of the nation to attend college. A UP presence in Central Luzon will provide access to higher education for Central Luzon inhabitants, particularly those from low-income households.

    2. To aid in the economic growth of the area. Central Luzon is a significant agricultural and industrial area. Several rising communities, such Clark Freeport Zone in Angeles City, and Subic Bay Freeport Zone in Olongapo City, are located in the area. A UP presence in Central Luzon could aid in the region's economic growth by producing a highly qualified workforce and undertaking research that answers the region's requirements.

    3. To encourage regional equality in higher education. Currently, UPDEPPO is the only actively functioning UP component institution situated in Luzon outside of Metro Manila. Having a UP presence in Central Luzon serves to foster regional equality and guarantee that Central Luzon youth have access to excellent higher education. It will also help in lessening the region's excessive reliance on Metro Manila for higher education.

Particular Instances How a Strong UP Presence in Central Luzon Benefits the Region:

    1. UP can create a research center on agriculture and food security, which could serve to enhance the region's agricultural sector's production and sustainability.

    2. UP can develop engineering and technology programs to assist in teaching the skilled labor force required to serve the region's expanding industrial sector.

    3. UP can establish a school of medicine and public health, which would benefit the region's citizens' specific health needs

    4. UP can provide programs in education, law, and other subjects important to the region's specific requirements.

Historical Background: 

UP Diliman Extension Program in Pampanga (UPDEPP), was established in 1979 as the UP Extension Program in San Fernando (UPEPSF). UPEPSF was created upon the initiative of Pampanga Governors Estelito Mendoza and Juanita Nepomuceno, to cater to the educational needs of the Central Luzon region and provide access to quality higher education. 

After Mt. Pinatubo’s unremitting lahar flows rendered UPEPSF's original building useless, UPEPSF moved to the Clark Freeport Zone (CFZ) in 1996 and was renamed UPDEPP. 

In 2007, UPDEPP was awarded a permanent site by the Clark Development Corporation. The site consisted of a 3.28-hectare lot within the Clark Freeport Zone (CFZ) which UPDEPP had envisioned to transform into a bustling university town. 

On the other hand, the UP Diliman Extension Program in Olongapo (UPDEPO) was launched in response to the request of the Olongapo City Government for UP higher education to be accessible to the provinces of Bataan and Zambales. The unit began to operate in the 1st semester, AY 1984-1985. On July 30, 1985, a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between UP and Olongapo City was signed, formally establishing UPDEPO. 

UPDEPO first found its home at the Olongapo City National High School, where it held classes on weekends. It proudly moved to a building inside the Subic Bay Freeport Zone (SBFZ) in 2000 by virtue of another MOA, this time between UP uand the Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority (SBMA). 

The MOA also put UPDEPO under the academic and administrative authority of UPDEPP. This arrangement gave birth to the abovementioned title “UP Diliman Extension Programs in Pampanga and Olongapo” or UPDEPPO. 

Academic Excellence and Quality Education

UPDEPPO upholds the same standards of academic excellence that UP Diliman is renowned for. By offering Master of Management, Bachelor of Arts in Applied Psychology, Bachelor of Arts in Business Economics, and, Bachelor of Science in Business Management, UPDEPPO provides students in Central Luzon with access to quality education. The UPDEPPO faculty members are highly qualified and respected in their respective fields, ensuring that students receive a rigorous and relevant education. 

Research and Innovation

A vital aspect of UPDEPPO's role in higher education is its commitment to research and innovation. The university promotes a culture of research and scholarly inquiry among its faculty and students. By conducting research, UPDEPPO contributes to knowledge creation and addresses the region's pressing social, economic, and environmental challenges. Moreover, UPDEPPO 's research initiatives could serve as a catalyst for innovation, fostering collaboration with industries and government agencies to develop practical solutions for societal issues. 

Community Development and Public Service

UPDEPPO is deeply committed to community development and public service. Through its community engagement initiatives, it actively collaborates with local communities, government units, and non-governmental organizations to address pressing social issues. 

UPDEPPO 's faculty and students participate in outreach activities, providing expertise, resources, and assistance to marginalized communities, in particular, the Ayta communities. These efforts not only benefit the communities but also imbue students with a sense of social responsibility and a deeper understanding of the region's development challenges. 

Regional Economic Growth

The presence of a prestigious institution like UPDEPPO can have a positive impact on the regional economy. The university attracts students from across Central Luzon and beyond, and can stimulate economic activity in the area. Local businesses, including housing, food, and transportation services, can benefit from the increased demand generated by the university community. Furthermore, UPDEPPO 's research and development collaborations with industries can promote technology transfer, innovation, and entrepreneurship, contributing to regional economic growth and job creation. 

Collaboration and Partnerships

UPDEPPO actively seeks collaborations and partnerships with local and international institutions, fostering academic exchanges, joint research projects, and student mobility programs. These collaborations enhance the quality of education and research at UPDEPPO, exposing students and faculty to diverse perspectives and global best practices. Moreover, partnerships with local industries and government agencies facilitate internships, on-the-job training, and employment opportunities for UPDEPPO graduates, strengthening the link between academia and the local workforce. 

Cultural Preservation and Promotion

UPDEPPO recognizes the importance of preserving and promoting the rich cultural heritage of Central Luzon. The university actively engages in cultural research, documentation, and preservation efforts, ensuring that traditional practices, arts, and languages are safeguarded for future generations. UPDEPPO also plans to organize cultural events, exhibitions, and performances, showcasing the region's cultural diversity and fostering a sense of pride among the local community. 

Capacity Building and Human Resource Development

One of the significant contributions of UPDEPPO to Central Luzon is its role in capacity building and human resource development. Through its academic programs, research initiatives, and training workshops, UPDEPPO equips students with the knowledge, skills, and competencies necessary for professional success. UPDEPPO produces graduates who are not only academically proficient but also socially responsible and mentally equipped to address the region's challenges. This human capital development is crucial in driving regional progress and sustainable development. 

Student Engagement and Leadership Development

UPDEPPO places a strong emphasis on student engagement and leadership development. It provides a vibrant campus environment that encourages student organizations, clubs, and societies. These extracurricular activities promote teamwork, organizational skills, and leadership qualities among its students. UPDEPPO also offers various leadership programs and training opportunities, nurturing the next generation of leaders who will contribute to the region's development and progress. 

Conclusion

The establishment of UPDEPPO is having a transformative impact on higher education in Central Luzon. Through its commitment to academic excellence, research, community development, and regional partnerships, UPDEPPO is playing a vital role in advancing education, fostering innovation, and promoting social progress in this vital region.

UPDEPPO’s contributions extend beyond the classroom, reaching the wider community and contributing to the region's economic growth and cultural preservation. As UPDEPPO continues to evolve and expand, its role in higher education in Central Luzon will remain crucial in shaping the future of the region.